A practical functional library for JavaScript programmers.

There are already several excellent libraries with a functional flavor. Typically, they are meant to be general-purpose toolkits, suitable for working in multiple paradigms. Ramda has a more focused goal. We wanted a library designed specifically for a functional programming style, one that makes it easy to create functional pipelines, one that never mutates user data.

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In JavaScript, functions are first-class objects; that is, functions are of the type Object and they can be used in a first-class manner like any other object (String, Array, Number, etc.) since they are in fact objects themselves. They can be “stored in variables, passed as arguments to functions, created within functions, and returned from functions”.

Because functions are first-class objects, we can pass a function as an argument in another function and later execute that passed-in function or even return it to be executed later. This is the essence of using callback functions in JavaScript. In the rest of this article we will learn everything about JavaScript callback functions. Callback functions are probably the most widely used functional programming technique in JavaScript, and you can find them in just about every piece of JavaScript and jQuery code, yet they remain mysterious to many JavaScript developers. The mystery will be no more, by the time you finish reading this article.

Callback functions are derived from a programming paradigm known as functional programming. At a fundamental level, functional programming specifies the use of functions as arguments. Functional programming was—and still is, though to a much lesser extent today—seen as an esoteric technique of specially trained, master programmers.

Fortunately, the techniques of functional programming have been elucidated so that mere mortals like you and me can understand and use them with ease. One of the chief techniques in functional programming happens to be callback functions. As you will read shortly, implementing callback functions is as easy as passing regular variables as arguments. This technique is so simple that I wonder why it is mostly covered in advanced JavaScript topics.

Note the following ways we frequently use callback functions in JavaScript, especially in modern web application development, in libraries, and in frameworks:


• For asynchronous execution (such as reading files, and making HTTP requests)
• In Event Listeners/Handlers
• In setTimeout and setInterval methods
• For Generalization: code conciseness

Instead of return, you should use callbacks as in asynchronous operations, return does not wait for the I/O operation to complete.

JavaScript function hoisting by example

Below are many examples of function hoisting behavior in JavaScript. Ones marked as works successfuly print 'hi!' without errors.

To play around with these examples (recommended) clone them with git and execute them with e.g. node a.js
Notes on hoisting

(I may be using incorrect terms below, please forgive me)

When JS is parsed, a first pass is done over each scope, and function definitions are immediately discovered. An example of a function definition is function foo() {}. When a function is declared like this, with a name, that name becomes available to the entire scope when the code in that scope is executed.

A crude timeline of how JS gets executed:

Parse the scope and detect all function definitions
Execute the code top-to-bottom with all functions found in step 1 available as variables

This behavior is called 'hoisting' because it is almost like the function definitions have been 'hoisted' up to the top of the function.

Assignments are not evaluated until the code is executed. An example of an assignment is var foo = function() {} or var foo = function foo() {}. A function must not be associated with an assignment in order for it to be hoisted (see example L)

Wrapping a function in parenthesis (()) is a quick way to convert a function definition into a function expression, which means it does not get hoisted (similar to assigning the function to a variable). I personally do not use this pattern regularly as I find it overly confusing to newbies etc, but I have included it because it is widely used in e.g. jQuery plugins.

I use hoisting as a code organization tool, for example here I rely on hoisting to make parseStream() available on line 20, even though it is defined on line 41, which I think makes that file more readable as I can put the 'meat' of the function at the top.

Callbacks are just the name of a convention for using JavaScript functions. There isn't a special thing called a 'callback' in the JavaScript language, it's just a convention. Instead of immediately returning some result like most functions, functions that use callbacks take some time to produce a result. The word 'asynchronous', aka 'async' just means 'takes some time' or 'happens in the future, not right now'. Usually callbacks are only used when doing I/O, e.g. downloading things, reading files, talking to databases, etc.

Summary

• Don't nest functions. Give them names and place them at the top level of your program
• Use function hoisting to your advantage to move functions 'below the fold'
• Handle every single error in every one of your callbacks. Use a linter like standard to help you with this.
• Create reusable functions and place them in a module to reduce the cognitive load required to understand your code. Splitting your code into small pieces like this also helps you handle errors, write tests, forces you to create a stable and documented public API for your code, and helps with refactoring.

The most important aspect of avoiding callback hell is moving functions out of the way so that the programs flow can be more easily understood without newcomers having to wade through all the detail of the functions to get to the meat of what the program is trying to do.

You can start by moving the functions to the bottom of the file, then graduate to moving them into another file that you load in using a relative require like require('./photo-helpers.js') and then finally move them into a standalone module like require('image-resize').

Here are some rules of thumb when creating a module:

• Start by moving repeatedly used code into a function
• When your function (or a group of functions related to the same theme) get big enough, move them into another file and expose them using module.exports. You can load this using a relative require
• If you have some code that can be used across multiple projects give it it's own readme, tests and package.json and publish it to github and npm. There are too many awesome benefits to this specific approach to list here!
• A good module is small and focuses on one problem
• Individual files in a module should not be longer than around 150 lines of JavaScript
• A module shouldn't have more than one level of nested folders full of JavaScript files. If it does, it is probably doing too many things
• Ask more experienced coders you know to show you examples of good modules until you have a good idea of what they look like. If it takes more than a few minutes to understand what is happening, it probably isn't a very good module.

More reading

Try reading my longer introduction to callbacks, or try out some of the nodeschool tutorials.

Also check out the browserify-handbook for examples of writing modular code.
What about promises/generators/ES6 etc?

Before looking at more advanced solutions, remember that callbacks are a fundamental part of JavaScript (since they are just functions) and you should learn how to read and write them before moving on to more advanced language features, since they all depend on an understanding of callbacks. If you can't yet write maintainable callback code, keep working at it!

If you really want your async code to read top-to-bottom, there are some fancy things you can try. Note that these may introduce performance and/or cross platform runtime compatibility issues, so make sure to do your research.

Promises are a way to write async code that still appears as though it is executing in a top-down way, and handles more types of errors due to encouraged use of try/catch style error handling.

Generators let you 'pause' individual functions without pausing the state of the whole program, which at the cost of slightly more complex to understand code lets your async code appear to execute in a top-down fashion. Check out watt for an example of this approach.

Async functions are a proposed ES7 feature that will further wrap generators and promises in a higher level syntax. Check them out if that sounds interesting to you.

Personally I use callbacks for 90% of the async code I write and when things get complicated I bring in something like run-parallel or run-series. I don't think callbacks vs promises vs whatever else really make a difference for me, the biggest impact comes from keeping code simple, not nested and split up into small modules.

Regardless of the method you choose, always handle every error and keep your code simple.
Remember, only you can prevent callback hell and forest fires

You can find the source for this on github.

Browserify lets you require('modules') in the browser by bundling up all of your dependencies.

jQuery and its cousins are great, and by all means use them if it makes it easier to develop your application.

If you're developing a library on the other hand, please take a moment to consider if you actually need jQuery as a dependency. Maybe you can include a few lines of utility code, and forgo the requirement. If you're only targeting more modern browsers, you might not need anything more than what the browser ships with.

At the very least, make sure you know what jQuery is doing for you, and what it's not. Some developers believe that jQuery is protecting us from a great demon of browser incompatibility when, in truth, post-IE8, browsers are pretty easy to deal with on their own.

jQuery and its cousins are great, and by all means use them if it makes it easier to develop your application.

If you're developing a library on the other hand, please take a moment to consider if you actually need jQuery as a dependency. Maybe you can include a few lines of utility code, and forgo the requirement. If you're only targeting more modern browsers, you might not need anything more than what the browser ships with.

At the very least, make sure you know what jQuery is doing for you, and what it's not. Some developers believe that jQuery is protecting us from a great demon of browser incompatibility when, in truth, post-IE8, browsers are pretty easy to deal with on their own.

No JavaScript frameworks were created during the writing of this article.

The following is inspired by the article “It’s the future” from Circle CI. You can read the original here. This piece is just an opinion, and like any JavaScript framework, it shouldn’t be taken too seriously.

The ecosystem of JavaScript has grown. Long gone are the days of simply inserting jQuery into your website and fading stuff in or out.

Entering the world of JavaScript today is an overwhelming task with lots of possibilities. It also means that it’s a world that’s brimming with opportunity. In the words of Jeff Atwood (http://blog.codinghorror.com/the-principle-of-least-power/):

Any application that can be written in JavaScript, will eventually be written in JavaScript.

An AsyncFunction object, representing an asynchronous function which executes the code contained within the function.

Nowadays, more and more websites support two or more languages. More languages supporting simply means more customers your website would. i18n (internationalization) is a solution to localize a web application into different languages and cultures, this is not simple process especially you have a large web application.

However, if you are using nodejs, thanks to many open-source i18n node middleware, you can deploy i18n solution without too much pain. This blog provides a simple demo to show how to build a multi-language website by using node and its i18n module.

Gulp est un "Automatiseur de tâches", un task runner comme disent nos amis anglophones, c'est à dire qu'il est capable de lancer des bouts de scripts à votre place tout seul comme un grand.

Ces tâches dépendent de votre bon vouloir et peuvent être très variées :

• des opérations simples telles que minifier ou concaténer du CSS ou du JavaScript,
• la création ou la suppression de dossiers ou de fichiers (possibilité de créer un projet à partir de zéro),
• l'optimisation, la compression d'images,
• la création de serveur local permettant de tester sur de multiples périphériques en même temps,
• la simulation de navigateurs fantômes conçus pour parcourir et tester les regressions d'affichage d'une page,
• etc.

Codecademy is an education company. But not one in the way you might think. We're committed to building the best learning experience inside and out, making Codecademy the best place for our team to learn, teach, and create the online learning experience of the future.

Interactive programming courses and guided projects

Open source workshops that teach web software skills. Do them on your own or at a workshop nearby.

Tern is a stand-alone code-analysis engine for JavaScript. It is intended to be used with a code editor plugin to enhance the editor's support for intelligent JavaScript editing. Features provided are:

Autocompletion on variables and properties
Function argument hints
Querying the type of an expression
Finding the definition of something
Automatic refactoring 

Tern is open-source (MIT license), written in JavaScript, and capable of running both on node.js and in the browser.